• Enforcement architecture and governance shape unfair competition through private contracting, hold-up dynamics, and regulatory discretion, showing cases where private enforcement complements or substitutes for public policy in industrial markets [15], [10], [6], [12], [4].

• Information economics and signaling in competition: standards, certification, and quality regimes mediate consumer risk and strategic firm behavior, illustrating how harmonization, mutual recognition, and signaling improve or distort welfare [17], [2], [14], [20], [5].

• Aftermarkets and service networks as competitive arenas: control over proprietary aftermarket products, leasing policies, and ISOs shapes pricing, entry barriers, and welfare beyond primary markets [3], [4], [12].

• Intellectual property, licensing, and rent-seeking dynamics influence unfair competition: strategic software protection, lemons-like concealment, and strategy around IP rights reconfigure welfare and market power [9], [8], [5], [13].

• Policy framing and trade regulation challenge unilateralism and market discipline: product/process distinctions, standard regimes, and regulatory design affect cross-border competition and the legitimacy of protective measures [20], [2], [15].